Critical Review and Analysis
Many researchers have studied the effects of media, for example, videos, educational games and illustrations, on knowledge acquisition in an instructional setting (Clark, 1983; Federation of American Scientists, 2006; Hartley, 1999; Kozma, 1994; Levie & Lentz, 1982; Mayer, 2001; Mayer et al., 1995). Kozma (1994) argues that if there is no relationship between media and learning, it is simply that we have not yet created the relationship. He cites a litany of studies that refutes a previous study published by Clark (1983) that concluded that media does not influence student achievement under any conditions and that it is merely the vehicle that brings the instruction to the learner. Kozma argued that previous studies, such as those conducted by Clark only isolated an independent variable in the experimental design and its effect on a dependent variable is then measured, therefore the result is a limited understanding of the experience because the cause and effect were examined, but the reason why was not. He argues that previous research has already shown how using a systematic approach and quantitative or ethnographic methods can be used to determine media-related causal relationships in learning, as well as how a mix-and-match coordinated learning approach was used in an experiment to specify the roles of teacher, students, curricula, and computer support within the classroom (Kozma, 1994). Researchers such as Levie and Lantz (1982), in researching the effect of illustrations in instruction, classifies illustrations in text, (and this can be extended to other instructional contexts where illustrations and other graphics are used) based on how they impact the learner: attentional - attracts or directs attention to the material, affective - enhances enjoyment or affects emotion and attitude, cognitive - serves to facilitate learning context…, and compensatory - accommodates poor readers.

Implications for Learning
Kozma’s ultimate stance is that researchers must reframe their line of thinking to fit an ultimate assumption that media does influence learning for certain students, tasks, and situations. Further, studies on illustrations effect on learning seem to show the “importance of visual illustration on learners’ affect in multimedia learning…[and that] using illustration in multimedia instructional material increases the interest of [the] learner” (Park & Lim, 2005). Regarding educational games, the use of educational games such as Discover Babylon and Immune Attack (Federation of American Scientists, 2006) seem to hold some promise in positively impacting learning. Research designs on the effects of illustration on learning should consider The Federation of American Scientists (FAS) recently reported that educational games have the potential to teach higher-order thinking skills, interpretive analysis and problem-solving skills (2006). In addition, digital games for learning can be used “to practice practical skills and important skills that are rarely used to train for high-performance situations…” (Federation of American Scientists, 2006). The most important points put forth by FAS, is the alignment of video games’ attributes important for learning: the fact that these games have clear goals, lessons can be practiced repeatedly until mastered, learner progress can be monitored and instruction can be adjusted based on the learner’s mastery level, closes the gap between what is learned and what is used, learning is personalized and there is infinite patience (2006).

Significant Issues
The studies discussed above, all indicate that there is a need for additional research to be conducted to improve our understanding about the interaction between learners and multimedia. Of interest are, learner’s individual characteristics regarding the preference to the illustration, the effect of the multimedia authoring program, the interaction between the learner’s characteristic, identification and reduction of cognitive load factors and distractions from the learning process in studies, and the type of illustration in the multimedia setting.

Conclusion
There is a variety of multimedia instruction that exists in our world today, and this paper only provides the reader with just a glimpse of what some learners may be exposed to via electronic media. The paper also briefly exposes what researchers have discovered about visual media and its impact which can be surmised as both positive and negative for learners. Further research is clearly necessary to lessen learning gaps referred to by the authors. Because technology evolves at such a rapid pace, technological research involving visual-based learning will, most likely, always be at the crossroads of discovery for some time to come.

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