by Jason Yousif
JYousif@ou.edu
BACKGROUND:
The Berlin Medical Papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus, the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (ca. 1600 B.C.) discussing surgical diagnosis and treatments, and the Ebers Papyrus on different diseases of the human body, are all known papyri that have survived to date that were written during the time of the Egyptians, depicting their views on medicine (Andre Dollinger). Without these papyri, the small amount of knowledge uncovered about the healing arts in ancient Egypt would probably never have been uncovered.
Egyptians during the "Ancient
Period" (before 529 A.D.) had a very
unique approach to the causes of illness and disease. They
perceived diseases and illnesses to have arisen from the work of the
gods or the evil forces, acquired by the presence of evil spirits and
their poisons in the body. The proper way to rid the body of
disease and illness, according to the Egyptians, was through the
"cleansing" of the body, i.e., exorcism, incantation (recitation of
spells producing a magic effect), purification, frightening of the
spirits within, or the wearing of an amulet, specifically designed for
the relief of certain illnesses and diseases (Lindberg, 18).
THE HEALERS:
There were different people the Egyptians could consult for relief of their illnesses or diseases, due to their belief that a specific god ruled each bodily organ, and that god could be summoned for the healing of that organ. Some chose to pray to Sekhmet, the goddess of healing, curses, and threats. Others asked for relief from Toth, Horus, Isis, or Imhotep, the gods associated with healing functions or healing cults. In the Leyden Papyrus, one can find a prayer to the god Horus for protection:
"Hail to thee, Horus.... I come to thee, I praise my beauty:
destroy thou the evil that is in my limbs." (Lindberg, 18)
This ritual of praying to a
god for relief of an illness or curse
required the facilitation of an expert. One who knew the required
prayers, who could assure the prayer ritual was done properly, who was
of acknowledged purity; the priest-healer.
HEALING THERAPIES:
Other than prayers, recitations of spells, or rituals, Egyptians also found relief of their illnesses or diseases through other means, such as medicinal remedies, prepared from minerals, animals, and vegetables, however the extent to which these medicines actually worked is debatable because they had to be prepared and administered under correct ritual conditions. For instance, upset stomachs, bowel trouble, and headaches each had their own concoction for relief, according to Eber's Papyrus:
"For the evacuation of the belly:
Cow's milk 1; grains 1; honey 1; mash, sift, cook; take in four portions.
To remedy the bowels:
Melilot (?), 1; dates, 1; cook in oil; anoint sick part.
To refresh an aching head:
Flour, 1; incense 1; wood of wa, 1; waneb plant, 1; mint (?), 1; horn of a stag, 1;
sycamore (?) seeds, 1; seeds of [ (?) ] , 1; mason's plaster (?), 1; seeds of zart, 1;
water, 1; mash, apply to the head.
To renew bowel movements in a constipated child:
An old book, boil in oil, apply half on the belly to reestablish evacuation."
(Andre Dollinger)
The common cold was treated with the milk from a mother who has birthed a boy, and this remedy was as effective for the Egyptians as Tylenol Cold and Flu or Sudafed is for us today. Ebers Papyrus even shows evidence of a spell that was recited along with the taking of the milk:
May you flow out, catarrh, son of catarrh, who breaks the bones, who destroys the skull,
who hacks in the marrow, who causes the seven openings in the head to ache.
The Berlin Medical Papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus, the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus, the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (ca. 1600 B.C.) discussing surgical diagnosis and treatments, and the Ebers Papyrus on different diseases of the human body, are all known papyri that have survived to date that were written during the time of the Egyptians, depicting their views on medicine (Andre Dollinger). Without these papyri, the small amount of knowledge uncovered about the healing arts in ancient Egypt would probably never have been uncovered.
Edwin Smith Surgical
Papyrus
David Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science, 1992 (pg. 19).
David Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science, 1992 (pg. 19).
THE HEALERS:
There were different people the Egyptians could consult for relief of their illnesses or diseases, due to their belief that a specific god ruled each bodily organ, and that god could be summoned for the healing of that organ. Some chose to pray to Sekhmet, the goddess of healing, curses, and threats. Others asked for relief from Toth, Horus, Isis, or Imhotep, the gods associated with healing functions or healing cults. In the Leyden Papyrus, one can find a prayer to the god Horus for protection:
"Hail to thee, Horus.... I come to thee, I praise my beauty:
destroy thou the evil that is in my limbs." (Lindberg, 18)
HEALING THERAPIES:
Other than prayers, recitations of spells, or rituals, Egyptians also found relief of their illnesses or diseases through other means, such as medicinal remedies, prepared from minerals, animals, and vegetables, however the extent to which these medicines actually worked is debatable because they had to be prepared and administered under correct ritual conditions. For instance, upset stomachs, bowel trouble, and headaches each had their own concoction for relief, according to Eber's Papyrus:
"For the evacuation of the belly:
Cow's milk 1; grains 1; honey 1; mash, sift, cook; take in four portions.
To remedy the bowels:
Melilot (?), 1; dates, 1; cook in oil; anoint sick part.
To refresh an aching head:
Flour, 1; incense 1; wood of wa, 1; waneb plant, 1; mint (?), 1; horn of a stag, 1;
sycamore (?) seeds, 1; seeds of [ (?) ] , 1; mason's plaster (?), 1; seeds of zart, 1;
water, 1; mash, apply to the head.
To renew bowel movements in a constipated child:
An old book, boil in oil, apply half on the belly to reestablish evacuation."
(Andre Dollinger)
The common cold was treated with the milk from a mother who has birthed a boy, and this remedy was as effective for the Egyptians as Tylenol Cold and Flu or Sudafed is for us today. Ebers Papyrus even shows evidence of a spell that was recited along with the taking of the milk:
May you flow out, catarrh, son of catarrh, who breaks the bones, who destroys the skull,
who hacks in the marrow, who causes the seven openings in the head to ache.
The
Ebers
Papyrus even contains
other medical recipes dealing with other
diseases, such as those of the digestive and reproductive systems,
eyes, mouth, skin, extremities, headaches, swollen glands, bad
breath, tumors, ulcers, burns, wounds, abscesses, and other internal
organs. Most Egyptians, however, went beyond just the treatment
of illnesses diseases upon their onset. They went as far as
taking preventative measures to avoid acquiring the illnesses.
One measure included an alteration of the diet. Most commonly,
bread and beer were consumed, alongside of onions or other vegetables,
and dried fish, as often as possible. Due to the belief of an
increase of endurance, large quantities of garlic and onions were also
consumed. Raw garlic was also used medicinally, given to those
with bronchial-pulmonary problems as well as asthmatics. Herbs,
nuts, leaves, or oil were also mixed in with other ingredients to
produce supplements aiding in relief of other illnesses. It
wasn't at all awkward to see coriander, cumin, caster oil, acacia nuts,
willow, pomegranate root, mandrake, fir oil, aloe, henna, fresh meat,
animal dung, malachite, lead-based chemicals, sycamore, yeast, or even
hashish being used. It seemed as if the Egyptians experimented
with everything within their reach to create useful medicines.
DISEASES:
A number of diseases are known to have plagued the Egyptians during their era. Some of which include the following: malaria, trachoma, bubonic plague, bilharziasis (spread through use of contaminated water, characterized by infection and slow destruction of the tissues of the kidneys, liver, and other organs), smallpox, worms, tuberculosis, leprosy, silicosis, abscesses, caries, pneumonia, measles, arthritis, dementia, and lockjaw, just to name a few. Due to the rise of all these diseases, alongside of malnutrition and inbreeding, it was rare if anyone during this time lived past the age of thirty-five years old.
EGYPTIAN MEDICINE'S ROLE IN HISTORY:
From the Egyptians, we can clearly see a liking for the examination part of their patients. This is seen in their extensive examination of the patients, probably in order to obtain a clear understanding of the illnesses seen. Most of the time, the examination was longer than the diagnosis and remedy treatment combined. This is most likely due to the Egyptians not acquiring any medicinal knowledge from any eras before theirs, if they so existed. It can be seen, however, that the Egyptians "paved the way" for ancient medicine, as their findings and theories influenced the Greeks, which in turn influenced the Roman Empire, which then influenced Arab and Western European medical practices.
INTERPRETATION:
To me, all this knowledge acquired from the study of Egyptian Medicine shows the formal beginning of the study of medicine, thereby crediting the Egyptians with actually founding of the medical field, in my eyes. The papyri they left behind, which some have managed to survive through today, set the never-ending course of the study of medicine. They were the first to recognize numerous diseases, experiment in producing different herbal or medicinal remedies to cure the diseases and illnesses, and the first to even describe disease and illness. Their belief that disease is caused by the gods or evil forces inhabiting their bodies may seem bizarre to some, but without this belief, there would probably be no medicinal field existent today. Some may also find the recitations of prayers and spells bizarre as well, but I, on the other hand, would compare this to prayers done by people today when their beloved ones are ill. As far as I am concerned, without the Egyptians and their questioning of disease, medicine would not be where it is today.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
My secondary source is reliable because it was written by a professional historian of science, and it is quite evident in the work that the author, David Lindberg, is extremely knowledgeable on the issues he chose to discuss in his work. My primary source is reliable because it focuses on the translations of the surviving papyri of the Egyptians. In order to create my own interpretation of this episode, I chose to review and study the sources I had at my disposal, and then do a combined summary of the sources, picking out key topics I thought were the most important, and therefore relevant to my project.
DISEASES:
A number of diseases are known to have plagued the Egyptians during their era. Some of which include the following: malaria, trachoma, bubonic plague, bilharziasis (spread through use of contaminated water, characterized by infection and slow destruction of the tissues of the kidneys, liver, and other organs), smallpox, worms, tuberculosis, leprosy, silicosis, abscesses, caries, pneumonia, measles, arthritis, dementia, and lockjaw, just to name a few. Due to the rise of all these diseases, alongside of malnutrition and inbreeding, it was rare if anyone during this time lived past the age of thirty-five years old.
EGYPTIAN MEDICINE'S ROLE IN HISTORY:
From the Egyptians, we can clearly see a liking for the examination part of their patients. This is seen in their extensive examination of the patients, probably in order to obtain a clear understanding of the illnesses seen. Most of the time, the examination was longer than the diagnosis and remedy treatment combined. This is most likely due to the Egyptians not acquiring any medicinal knowledge from any eras before theirs, if they so existed. It can be seen, however, that the Egyptians "paved the way" for ancient medicine, as their findings and theories influenced the Greeks, which in turn influenced the Roman Empire, which then influenced Arab and Western European medical practices.
INTERPRETATION:
To me, all this knowledge acquired from the study of Egyptian Medicine shows the formal beginning of the study of medicine, thereby crediting the Egyptians with actually founding of the medical field, in my eyes. The papyri they left behind, which some have managed to survive through today, set the never-ending course of the study of medicine. They were the first to recognize numerous diseases, experiment in producing different herbal or medicinal remedies to cure the diseases and illnesses, and the first to even describe disease and illness. Their belief that disease is caused by the gods or evil forces inhabiting their bodies may seem bizarre to some, but without this belief, there would probably be no medicinal field existent today. Some may also find the recitations of prayers and spells bizarre as well, but I, on the other hand, would compare this to prayers done by people today when their beloved ones are ill. As far as I am concerned, without the Egyptians and their questioning of disease, medicine would not be where it is today.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
- Andre Dollinger, "Ancient Egypt", Ancient Egyptian Medicine, http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/medicine.htm#rem9 . This website goes into extensive detail on how the Egyptians viewed and studied medicine during their time. The thing that interests me most about this website is the amount of depth and detail that was acquired from the only five available papyri that were able to survive to present date.
- David Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science (Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1992). This text is an amazing view of pre-modern science, not just in medicine, but also in astronomy, mathematics, physics, and many other aspects of science. The thing that interests me most about this work is the large amount of detail and information depicted on many different eras of pre-modern history, instead of just focusing on one. It is a greatly useful source.
My secondary source is reliable because it was written by a professional historian of science, and it is quite evident in the work that the author, David Lindberg, is extremely knowledgeable on the issues he chose to discuss in his work. My primary source is reliable because it focuses on the translations of the surviving papyri of the Egyptians. In order to create my own interpretation of this episode, I chose to review and study the sources I had at my disposal, and then do a combined summary of the sources, picking out key topics I thought were the most important, and therefore relevant to my project.